一、翻译界说：
1. 张培基——翻译是用一种言语把另一种言语所表达的思维内容精确而无缺地从头表达出来的言语活动。
10. “translation is the expression in one language of what has been expressed in another language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.” — dubois
12. “translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” — peter newmark
13. translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.
二、翻译标准
1. 翻译的标准归纳为简明简明的四个字：“忠诚（faithfulness）、通畅（smoothness）”。忠诚指的是忠诚于原文。通畅指的是译文的言语有必要符合标准、浅显易懂。
2. 严复对翻译早年提出“信（faithfulness）、达（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的标准
3. “泰特勒三原则”：（1）that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work；（2）that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original；（3）that the translation should have all the ease of original composition.”
（1）译作应完全复写出原作的思维；（2）译作的个性和办法应和原作归于同一性质；（3）译作应具有原作所具有的通畅。”
5. 奈达提出了闻名的“动态对等”。他对翻译所下的界说: 所谓翻译, 是在译语顶用最切近而又最天然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首要是意义, 其次是文体。这必界说清楚指出翻译的本质和使命是用译语再现源语信息, 翻译的办法用最切近而又最天然的对等语。
7. vermeer的“意图论”：
一般情况下，“意图”是指译文的交际意图。意图论认为，翻译进程的建议者（initiator）抉择译文的交际意图，但当建议者因专业常识缺乏或其他缘由对译辞意图不甚明晰的时分，译者可以与建议者洽谈，从特别的翻译情况中得出译辞意图。意图性原则需求译者在整个翻译进程中的参照系不该是对等翻译理论所偏重的原文和功用，而应是译文在译语文明环境中所要抵达的一种或几种交际功用，即应以完成译文在译语文明中的预期功用为首要原则。

郭沫若：好的翻译等于创造
三、翻译进程
4.从翻译的体裁来看明，翻译可分为专业性翻译（翻译法令、科技文献、专业学术论著等）、文学翻译（翻译小说、诗歌、戏曲等文学作品）和一般性翻译（翻译各种使用文和新闻报导等）。
5. 从翻译方法上来看，翻译可分为全译、摘译和编译。
五、中西言语差异：形合（hypotaxis）与意合（parataxis）
“形合”和“意合”是已故言语学家王力先生所译。形合指语句内部的联接或
树枝 流水
六、我国翻译简史
1. 古代佛经翻译的三个期间
2. 我国近现代翻译
民末清初的科技翻译
明徐光启和意大利人利马杜协作，翻译了欧几里德的《几许正本》、《测量法义》等书。
鸦片战争至甲午战争前
闻名的禁烟英豪林则徐决计“师夷之长技以制夷”，初步“日日使人探听西事，翻译西书”，被称为“组织翻译活动的前驱”。言语学家马建忠在其《拟设翻译书院议》一文中留下了一些有关翻译的论说。他提甲午战争后
最闻名的翻译家当首推严复。严复所译作品多系西方政治经济学说，如赫胥黎的《天演论》(evolution and ethics and other essays)，亚当?斯密的《原富》(an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth ofnations)，斯宾塞尔的《群己权界论》(on liberty)、甄克斯的《社会通诠》(thestudy of politics)等、并提出简练凝练的翻译标准“信、达、雅”(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) 。清林纾和他的协作者以口述笔记的方法译了一百六十多部文学作品，其间最闻名的有《黑奴吁天记》(uncle tom’s cabin)，《块肉余生记》(david copperfield)，《王子复仇记》(hamlet)等（现用新译名）。
晚清时期
我国译者对国外文学名著的翻译也情有独钟，所出书的译作首要有《伊索寓言》、《天方夜谭》、《鲁宾逊漂流记》、《茶花女遗事》、《凄惨世界》、《安娜·卡列妮娜》等等。这一时期介绍外国文学作品探究文学翻译理论的翻译家首要有林纾、周桂笙、徐念慈、伍光建、苏曼殊和王国维等。
“五四”运动今后
我国译坛又接连呈现出一大批翻译实习和翻译理论我们，其间有许多都是闻名的文学家，如鲁迅、胡适、林语堂、茅盾、郭沫若、瞿秋白、朱生豪、朱光潜等。
3. 我国今世翻译
到了1990年，刘宓庆的《现代翻译理论》出书，译界公认此书为现代翻译理论体系树立的标志，传统译论也就满足地划上了句号，取而代之的是科学的、成体系的现代翻译理论。
七、西方翻译简史
1. 古代翻译活动：
西方翻译活动可追溯到公元前三世纪。其时有文字记载的翻译作品现已面世：七十二位犹太专家在自个埃及的亚历山大城翻译了《圣经?旧约》，即后人所称的《七十子希腊文本》；罗马文学家安德罗尼科用拉丁文翻译了《奥德赛》。
8、常用翻译办法、战略与技巧
1. 直译与意译（literal translation and free translation）
注：在翻译界通用的办法是将“直译”与“意译”彼此联系。任何一篇好的翻译作品，并不是单纯的某一种翻译办法贯穿一向，而是在坚持原文内容的精确性，不致使歧义的情况下，将这两种翻译办法在同一翻译作品中并用，相得益彰。笔者对翻译界的这种做法完全认同。笔者认为，两种翻译办法在任何一篇翻译作品中都能并用的话，必定可以译出一部优良的翻译作品。
2. 归化和异化（domestication and foreignization）
归化（domestication）是指在翻译中选用通明、流通的个性，最大极限地淡化原文的陌生感的翻译战略它应尽可以的使源语文本所反映的世界接近意图语文明读者的世界，然后抵达源语文明与意图语文明之间的“文明对等”。
异化（foreignization）是指违背本乡干流价值观，保存原文的言语和文明差异指在必定程度上保存原文的异域性，成心打破方针言语常规的翻译它主张在译文中保存源语文明，丰厚意图语文明和意图语的言语表达方法。
面试疑问搜集
1. 从大学翻译课程里学到了啥?
① 国表里的翻译史 the translation theorie at home and abroad
② 一些出名的翻译派系及其各自学说 famous translation methods represented by famous translators
③ 翻译技巧? translating skills and methods.
2. 晓得哪些翻译技

巧？
① 加注(annotation)：因为英汉文明存在许多差异，因而英语中某些文明词语在汉语中根柢就没有对等词，构成了词义上的空缺。在这种情况下，英译汉常常常要选用加注法来抵偿空缺。加注一般可以用来弥补比方布景材料、词语来历等有关信息，便于读者了解。加注法可
② 增词(amplification)：英汉两种言语因为表达方法不尽相同，翻译常常常有必要在译文的词量上作恰当的添加，使译文既能忠诚地传达原文的内容和个性，又能契合译入语的表达习气。可是增词有必要是根据具体情况添加非添加不可以的词语。增词一般用于以下三种情况：一是为了语法上的需要；二是为了意义上的需要；三是为了修辞上的需要。
③ 减词(omission)：减词是指将原文中需要、而译文中又不需要的词语省去。减省的词语应是那些在译文中保存下来反而使行文负担噜嗦、且不合汉语言语表达习气的词语。减词一般用于以下两种情况：一是从语法视点进行减省；二是从润饰视点进行减省。
④ 变换(conversion)：因为英汉两种言语在语法和表达方法等方面存在着许多差异，因而英译汉常常常有必要改动表达方法，使译文通畅流通、地道可读。这种变通技巧就是变换法(shift of perspective)。变换的方法多种多样，大体可分为7种：词类变换，语句成分变换，表达方法变换，天然语序与倒装语序变换；正面表达与不和表达变换，主动式与被逼式变换，分句变换。
⑤ 正说反译，反说正译(negation)：
e.g. the question is above me. 这个疑问我答不上来。
transliteration
literal translation
literal translation, or direct translation, is the rendering of text from one language to another word-for-word rather than conveying the sense of the original.the approach of literal translation is a good way to fill the gap without going against its cultural convention, causing unfavorable association, or misunderstanding. this method can retain the national or local flavor to some extent.
free translation
free translation, also called creative translation, is a supplementary translation method. a free translation is a translation that reproduces the general meaning of the original text. it may or may not closely follow the form or organization of the original. it emphasizes on the functional equivalence of the original text, because in some cases, the original meaning can not be fully conveyed if translated word-by-word.
combination of transliteration and literal translation attaches more attention to the target language, which makes every effort to associate the source language with the target language and sort out the best association. it not only requires translator’s full mastery of both source and target language, but also requires a creative mind. through applying this method, a good brand name is more likely to achieve.
4. 平常怎样前进自个翻译水平：
① 去译言网?
② 研读名家译文one way is to study the translation works by famous translator, but only appreciating other translation work will be far away from being a good translator, we also should take out our pen and try to translate in person as often as possible. and compare the two versions, yours and others, find out the difference and figure out the reason, and give yourself a neutral evaluation, take notes and make a conclusion.
5. 是不是读过翻译方面原著：
the theory and practice of translating by eugene nida
i read part of it, because of read it as a reference when i wrote my thesis paper during last year.
6. 你晓得哪些翻译理论或许原则：
? dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence)
? scopostheorie? veer mire
different from other translation theories, skopotheorie is a subdivision of function theory, which insists that translation is a target language-oriented activity with intended function. the prime principle determining any translation is the purpose of the overall translational action. and the translator has the right to determine when and how to translate. that is to say, translator should use proper translation methods according to different purposes and has the right to determine what to be remained, or molded.
7. do you know the difference between dynamic equivalence and functional equivalence? do you know formal equivalence?
do you have you own translation criteria?
owning to my translation experience is not enough; i spelled out several rules that i have to obey. firstly, faithfulness, as a green handed translator, carrying out the original meaning of the speaker is the most fundamental thing that we have to obey, with nothing extra added and nothing removed.
8. 对翻译的了解；translation, in my opinion, is like a matchmaker, an agent that bridge the gap between two different speakers. sometimes, it is like a magic, which can remover the misunderstanding of the two speakers by the careful translator. if he have noticed the improperness of the speaker and it’s not the original intention of the speaker, the translator can modify or make a little fix of the translation so that can achieve a better result.
9. 选择翻译的理由；
有用
10. 自个本质（包括中英文布景常识——读过的文学书本等、翻译理论的晓得、翻译过的东西）；
11. 对mti的了解和读mti时刻的方案；对将来的方案；mti学习同你的方案之间的联络。
学好笔译，一起去听口译的课，将来能变成合格的舌人或答应以去高校任教。
12. 其他的可以因人而异，比方说自个阅历同翻译的联络等等
自个阅历越丰厚，了解才能越强，翻译起来更简略。
1. what do you consider translation to be, art, science or just craft? please elaborate on your stand.
art,需要细细雕刻，特别是笔译
2. what do you think the optimal translation criteria should be? please make some comments on yan fu’s “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance”.
3. how do you view the “cultural turn” phenomenon in translation studies nowadays?
4. how do you view the inter-relationship among language, culture and translation?
interdepent and interwoven together.

1. 你晓得哪些翻译理论或许原则，环绕原则持续深化谈论6. 你晓得哪些翻译理论或许原则：
? dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence)
? scopostheorie
different from other translation theories, skopotheorie is a subdivision of function theory, which insists that translation is a target language-oriented activity with intended function. the prime principle determining any translation is the purpose of the overall translational action. and the translator has the right to determine when and how to translate. that is to say, translator should use proper translation methods according to different purposes and has the right to determine what to be remained, or molded.